Computer Networks

Introduction Computer security is a popular term used in modern information age. The term is used persistently to address issues about safety of information systems and networks. As the use of computer networks gains much recognition in the society; there is an urgent need to address the security issues of information stored on such systems.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Computer Networks specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Computers without any security policies or measures can make a network susceptible to threats, attacks or may even disable network activities within minutes. Similarly, it may take much effort and time to recover a compromised resource. Internet has provided more opportunities for individuals, organizations and governments. However, its simplicity of access has made it insecure for privacy, retrieval and distribution of information. Several protocols used to guarantee security on the internet have proved ineffective; hence tools to eavesdrop or â€Å"sniff† passwords on the network are often exploited by malicious hackers. Applications which broadcast unencrypted passwords across the network are equally vulnerable. Clients and server applications depend on client and server software’s to be â€Å"truthful† on issues of user identity using their applications. Other applications depend largely on the client to limit its operations to those connected with what it is obliged to do, with limited or otherwise no enforcement by the server. To address the above mentioned issues, Kerberos was viewed as a solution. Kerberos is a unique network security mechanism which uses cryptography. Cryptography mechanism allows a client to verify its identity to the server and vice versa over the unprotected network connection. Kerberos Kerberos is a modern security mechanism which is used to safeguard communications occurring over insecure network. It achieves this throu gh proving the authenticity of nodes communicating to one another. In other words, it is a computer network authentication protocol that works using the basic of â€Å"tickets† to use computers communicating over unprotected networks to verify their uniqueness to one another in a protected mode. Kaufman et al (1995) offers another definition of Kerberos. He asserts that Kerberos may designate a set of free software that was published by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology that implemented the Kerberos protocol. The primary objective of designing Kerberos was safeguarding client-server by providing a mutual authentication facility. That is, both the server and the node identify each other’s while communicating.Advertising Looking for report on computer science? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Kerberos messages are secure against replay attacks and eavesdropping. The technology is based on symmetric key crypt ography and demands a trusted third-party. Correspondingly, this security mechanism may employ a public key cryptography by using asymmetric key cryptography during the process of authentication (Kaufman et al, 1995). Kerberos uses the symmetric Needham-Schroeder protocol. It also utilizes the trusted party known as the Key Distribution Center (KDC). The KDC contains two logically distinct parts, the Ticket Granting Server (TGS), and the Authentication Server (AS). The KDC keeps a database of private keys and element on the network regardless of whether it is a node or a server. The node and the server share the private or secret key known to the KDC and to the nodes and servers. The authenticities of this key act as proof of an element’s identity. According to Neuman and Ts’o (1994), for communications reasons, the KDC releases a session key which the parties communicating employ to encrypt the contents they are broadcasting. The security of the Kerberos protocol depe nds entirely on temporal assertions of validity referred to as Kerberos Tickets (Neuman and Ts’o, 1994). Elements of Kerberos Protocol Tools Kerberos uses different types of elements of network security to accomplish or manage authentication between the services and users. These elements are important. Without them, the objective of safeguarding network resources would be fruitless. Some of the most important elements are described below. Client and Servers Tickets Client and servers are the primary elements of Kerberos. According to Neuman et al (2005), the client designates a system or a person that wants to access the network or web enabled services. The server on the other hand uses the Kerberos authentication service to ascertain clients have valid access to the program or an application they wish. Tickets are useful in the Kerberos authentication service (Neuman and Ts’o, 1994). They contain information that is essential for identifying the client to the server. Kerberos encrypt the information contained in the ticket to ensure the illegal access is not allowed. Port A characteristic that Kerberos tools have in all Kerberos system administration is the port. Kerberos have by default port 88.This suggests that when communication tools are developed; the passwords, log on IDs and user IDs have to communicate through this port.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Computer Networks specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More If accurate combination of passwords and user IDs is verified by the authentication server, then access or log- in is granted through this port. Network administration can therefore give access to files, database, programs and emails, among other services when they link the encryption keys with this port. Encryption Encryption is a typical element of all Kerberos enabled tools. Encryption illustrates anything inputted by a keyboard or read on a file and translated in to a coded format. The encrypted message makes it unreadable, unrecognized or unutilized by any program or person that is not permitted to do so. A more significant feature of encryption is that no password is stored in an encrypted format. Each encryption algorithm uses a precise key length that can alter an imputed unencrypted password that is entered in an encrypted one to grant strengthened protection. Active Directory Trusts and Domains They are Kerberos tools available for windows server. It is a graphical interface feature that Microsoft Corporation has made it available for network administrators. It assists network administrators in viewing all trusted and domain relationships so they can enforce protection levels within these domains. The tools can be employed for all trusted and related activities such as varying and viewing trusts. Active Directory Computers and Users They are Microsoft management console tools which contain the administration tool pack. The administrati on tool pack uses the Kerberos protocol. The characteristic of Active Directory Computers and Users is that they include the ability of controlling, configuring and publishing information from the Active Directory. All administrative roles in domain controllers that need authentication are encrypted. How Kerberos Authentication Works Kerberos succeeds its security operations in various ways. Each activity follows one another in succession. The process of authenticating begins when a client computer makes a formal request to access or use the server. The client requests the authentication service to generate a ticket containing client credentials and sends the information to the server together with session information (Kaufman et al, 1995). The client and Kerberos use the client information such as the password to validate the information. The Kerberos then broadcasts an encrypted ticket to the server with a password known to the server and Kerberos. Strebe (2002) notes the server v alidates the information to verify the source and the identity of the user.Advertising Looking for report on computer science? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It can also use the timestamp of the ticket to establish the validity of the request. The lifetime of a ticket lasts a few minutes; this is to ensure the process occurs in the shortest time possible for security purposes (Bellovin and Merrit, 1990). In understanding how Kerberos achieves these roles, the writer will list and describes each packet that is involved between client and application server and clients and the KDC during the process of authentication. Stage 1 Authentication Server Request, AS_REQ According to Neuman et al (2005) this phase is known as the initial authentication request. The client requests the KDC for a Ticket Granting Ticket. The request, in the form of a message is unencrypted. Stage 2 Authentication Server Reply, AS_REP When a preceding request arrives, the AS checks whether the reply contains TGT, which is encrypted with the TGS private key, and the session key encrypted with the secret key from the requesting user (Neuman et al, 2005). If one of the t wo keys fail to exist, an error message is posted to the client, otherwise, the AS process the reply. The processing is carried out using the following format. It randomly fixes a session key which acts as a secret key and shares it with the client and the TGS It also establishes the TGT inserting the requesting user’s principal, which is the service principal. Lastly, it creates and dispatches the reply that contains the ticket produced earlier and encrypted using the secret key for the service. The timestamp, lifetime, service principal and session keys are encrypted using the secret key labeled for the user invoking the service. Stage 3 Ticket Granting Server Reply, TGS_REP At this stage, the user who is authentic, and wants to access the service in context but does not have a valid ticket, sends a request as the Ticket Granting Server replies to the Ticket Granting Service (Neuman et al, 2005). The Ticket Granting Service model is as explained below; It fixes an authen ticator with the client machine, user principal, and timestamp and encrypts with the session key common with the TGS. It also establishes a request packet that contains; the Ticket Granting Ticket, which is already encrypted with the key of the Ticket Granting Service; the service principal which the ticket is needed and lifetime unencrypted; and the authenticator. When the previous requests arrive, the TGS’ initial step is to verify the principal of the requested service is present in the KDC database. If present, it opens the TGT by using the key and extracts the session key. It uses the key to decrypt the authenticator. To achieve service ticket, the following criterion has to be met. The TGT should not have expired. The principal contained in the authenticator should match the one available in the TGT. The authenticator should be available in the replay cache and should not have been expired. Stage 4 Application Request, AP_REQ When the client has credentials to access the service, that is the session key and the ticket, it can request the application server for a right of entry to network resources through the Application Request message. It should be noted that unlike other messages where the KDC is involved, the Application Request is not standard. It varies based on the application in context. Stage 5 Pre-Authentication As represented in Authentication Server Reply, before distributing a ticket, the KDC verifies the principal of the asking service provider and others are available in the database (Strebe, 2002). If the request is from an illegal user, TGT cannot be invoked because of the password, thus it is difficult to release a session key for creating a legitimate authenticator. Kerberos Operation (Author, 2011) Protecting Application Data As explained earlier, Kerberos provides the services of authentication only; an assurance the authenticated element is a dynamic partaker in an exchange. According to Jablon (1996) a derivative of Kerb eros authentication protocol is the swap of the session key between the client and the server (Tanenbaum, 2003). The session key may consequently be used by a program or an application to provide privacy and integrity of communication. The Kerberos describes two types of messages, private and safe messages to summarize data that need to be protected (Strebe, 2002). However, the application is at liberty to use a suitable method to a particular data being relayed. Success of Kerberos Kerberos has achieved notable success in network security issues. This is in contrast with other similar security tools providing security services. Password protection Kerberos does not allow a user’s password to be sent across the network either under encryption or in plain text. Rather, the protocol depends on keys that are transmitted through encryption. Hence the keys cannot be intercepted (Jablon, 1996). For example, when the security of the network is tampered, Kerberos makes it likely for trespassers to construe the content of network transmissions. Similarly, target services and user authentications remain safe. Client/Server Authentication Kerberos allows the client and server to authenticate to each other. Communication can break or fail if they are not able to authenticate. Client/Server Ticket Certification Kerberos timestamps the tickets that pass from the server to client and from client to server, it also encompasses lifetime information besides common authentication. Hence the period of authentication is restricted (Bellovin and Merrit, 1990). The time spent by the user during implementation may be altered by design but the limit is less to ensure that replay attacks are not contained. By limiting time, the strategy makes communication secure. Reusability and Durability Kerberos protocol authentication is reusable and durable. When a user authenticates using the Kerberos protocol, the authentication can be reused during the lifetime of the ticket. This is to imply that it is feasible to remain valid through the protocol without re-entering a username and password over the network. Session Key Generation The Kerberos protocol uses a dual key encryption method. The product of the service session key provides a unique link between the client and the service that is safe. This unique â€Å"secret† link is used as the encryption key during client/server communication (Bellovin and Merrit, 1990). This adds security to Kerberos communication. Internet Standard The Kerberos protocol depends on the open internet platform. It is not restricted to authentication mechanisms or proprietary codes. This enables developers to depend on open and free reference implementation of a public method. Similarly, inexpensive commercial implementations can be developed separately or bought. Ubiquity Kerberos is widely embraced and trusted by security experts, developers and cryptologists. Hence, new breaches are likely to be noted and resolved instantane ously. This is in contrast with proprietary systems. Kerberos has substantial investments hence its security mechanism is difficult to overcome. Besides, the strength of Kerberos is anchored on numbers. Failures of Kerberos Protocol Though Kerberos cancels or guards against severe and common security threats, it may be challenging to implement. This is because of various reasons: Knowledge in Implementation According to Bellovin and Merrit (1990) Kerberos protocol was developed to be used for a single user client system. In cases where a client acts as a multi user system, the Kerberos authentication mechanism may be compromised to various replay attacks and ticket stealing. The general protection of a multi user client system such as memory protection, file system protection among others maybe a restricting reason of Kerberos authentication (Bellovin and Merrit, 1990). No knowledge or cleverness in implementing a Kerberos authentication can substitute system administration practice s Kerberos server and client systems. Support of Proprietary Software Kerberos utilizes mutual authentication model. It is important for client and servers to be deliberated with Kerberos authentication. Some proprietary applications also support Kerberos. Besides, various legacy systems were deliberated and maintained programs. However, they were not designed with third party authentication tools in mind (Kohl et al, 1994). This means that they need to be rewritten to embrace Kerberos authentication. Server Attacks The Kerberos authentication method is susceptible to severe attacks against ticket granting service and the initial ticketing service, KDC. The whole authentication mechanism depends on the â€Å"faithfulness† of the KDC (Kohl et al, 1994). Hence any person who can compromise authenticating users can compromise the authentication of users of the system depending on the KDC. Thus, this needs efficient system administration practices while managing the Kerberos KDC. All Nothing Strategy Kerberos can be an all nothing strategy when utilized in a network. An encrypted password communicated over the network to a non-Kerberos enabled aware the service is in danger. Hence, the networks accrue no benefit from using Kerberos. To make a network secure with Kerberos, a person must use Kerberos enabled version on all clients and server applications that communicates the passwords unencrypted. Conclusion The Kerberos protocol provides the needed security to protect communications occurring over a network. Without its strength, computer networks would be at risk against threats and attacks. Precisely, without the facts of the identity of an element or individual identity requesting an operation, it is challenging to make a decision whether an operation should be denied or granted. Kerberos achieves network security by using shared key cryptography. This makes both the client and server access the same password or key to positively recognize the user. Perh aps, this strength of the Kerberos helps to manage passwords for many users by granting services that assist in coordinating passwords between the services and the users they desire to use. The conventional authentication strategies are not a guarantee for use on networks where attackers can easily check network traffic and seize passwords. Kerberos uses strong authentication approach that does not divulge passwords, hence supporting network security. References Bellovin, S., M., Merritt, M., 1990, Limitations of the Kerberos Authentication system. Computer Communication Review 20(5), pp. 119-132. Jablon, D., 1996, Strong Password-only Authenticated Key Exchange. Computer Communication Review 26(5), pp. 5-26. Kaufman, C., Perlman, R., Speciner, M., 1995, Network Security: Private Communication in a Public World, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey. Kohl, J., T., Neuman, B., C., Ts’o, T., 1994, â€Å"The Evolution of the Kerberos Authentication System†. Distributed Open System s. IEEE Computer Society Press. Washington. Neuman, B., C., Ts’o, T., 1994. â€Å"Kerberos: An Authentication Service for Computer Networks†. IEEE Communications, 32(9), pp. 33–81. Neuman, B., C., Yu, T., Hartman, S., Raeburn, K., 2005, The Kerberos Network Authentication Service (V5). Available at;  https://www.ietf.org/ Strebe, M., 2002, Network Security Jump-Start: Computer and Network Security Basics. John Wiley and Sons, New Jersey. Tanenbaum, A., S., 2003, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall PTR, New Jersey. This report on Computer Networks was written and submitted by user Ult1mates to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Hannibal essays

Hannibal essays Hannibal is a continuation of the movie Silence of the Lambs. Dr. Hannibal Lector was placed in an asylum after killing many people. An FBI agent, Clarice Spalding was over Dr. Lectors case. She spent many nights speaking with Hannibal, listening to his thoughts without criticism. After ten years dealing with Hannibal Lecter face-to-face, Clarice is a much colder and less emotional toward life. Many of the workers were rude to Hannibal and other patients of the asylum. Hannibal acted out as a cannibal, by eating of the faces of the rude workers. Hannibal escaped from the asylum and no one had any idea where he could be hiding. Hannibal begins effectively with Clarice on a drug raid with the help of several other agents. She kills a drug czar, Elvelda, by firing a bullet at her chest. Evelda held a Mac 10 in her hand as well as her baby strapped around her chest. After firing the first shots, she left Clarice with the choice of killing a mother holding her child or to lose her own life. The incident puts Clarice in a difficult position with the FBI, as she has to turn over her gun and badge. There is an agent named Paul Krendler that has it in for Clarice, and desires her sexually. As always, Clarice's interests in life exclude anything sexual. Since she has turned him down several times he begins to act snooty towards her. In one funny scene, shows Krendler looking at photos of Lecter unaware Clarice is watching him. She alerts him and he asks, "What are you doing in the dark?" Her response: "Thinking of cannibalism." After the FBI released new information given by Mason Verger, Clarice reopened the case. Verger was forced to slice off his own face and feed it to his dogs thanks to Hannibal. Hes now a faceless cipher with no eyelids and a horrifying expression. Verger is a billionaire that wants Hannibal fed to his killer boars, and provides a handsome reward to anyone who knows of Hanni ...

Action Planning Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Action Planning - Assignment Example However, there is a specific mechanism of approaching each action to reach the desired goals. The inclusion of actions will interfere with customer service, retention and acquisition. However, it is advisable for human resource managers to establish a social network with more colleges to discuss on similar ideas and generate remedies that do not drag the success of an entity. The process of action planning is very sensitive in the operation of an organisation where the human resource shall compare and contrast the effect of taking certain action as discussed in the goals realised in the study which are going to enhance our business growth below (Kumar 2011, p. 20). The process of enhancing, an action in an organisation to influence any goal of the entity the human resource will cater for several questions, for instance, what is the cost of expenditure. Do we have the right person to recruit? In addition, is it the right time to initiate the action? In the case of improving the staff body, it involves regulating g of the personnel working within a certain period in an entity that is mostly done through head count to ensure that the correct role is being done for the right cost. Critically, the human resource should come up with procedures of prospecting managers who fit the activities run by an entity and high quality interviews for the staff to get the right people. However, in the performance of these activities the human resource will be in a position to reach these goals. However, these actions cannot be enhanced and made by an individual, but it will need a mentor to provide advice to the HR office (Caruth, Caruth, and Pane 2009, p.30). The goal deserves attention in increasing the customers tally and calls for a distinct customer service that stands as the differentiating factor with other organisations trading on the same commodity.

Technical Instruction Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Technical Instruction - Assignment Example This essay revolves around task analysis for a 4th generation iPod Touch from Apple Inc. Hierarchical analysis entails decomposing a complex task into subtasks that are easy to understand. In case of operating an iPod, Hierarchical analysis provides detailed description of all steps starting from switching the device on to playing a tune and adjusting audio volume. On the contrary, cognitive analysis provides informative knowledge on optimizing functionality of a product. At this juncture, iPod task analysis can be broken down into subtasks as in the layout below. After acquiring a new iPod, charging is necessary to ensure battery durability. A green light code on the top right corner indicates the device’s battery status. Presence of 3 or more green light codes signifies a strong battery status while less than 2 codes indicates a low battery. Charge an iPod Touch through the following steps; Configuration of a device is necessary in order to enhance its security and enhance its functionality. Failure to configure an iPod Touch from Apple will restrict the device’s ability to accept and install certain applications from iTunes Store. Configuration of a new device is achieved through the following steps; Modification of contents falls into two broad categories; adding applications and removing applications. Apart from these two tasks, users can engage in other minor modifications like customizing background theme, hiding applications and customizing the lock screen

Marketing Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Marketing Management - Assignment Example Cadbury has been operating in India for over 60 years now. It started its operation by importing chocolates in 1948. Presently, the company boasts of a market share of above 70% which is the highest share of the brand across the globe. Cadbury’s billion Dollar brand ‘Dairy Milk’ is referred in India as the â€Å"gold standard† in terms of chocolates. Cadbury was also a pioneer in India for developing cocoa cultivation, since 1965. They have given a quality life to thousands of farmers through their continuous efforts to increase the production of cocoa. No wonder that a Cocoa tree in India is popular in the name of Cadbury tree (Cadbury, n.d.). It can be said that Cadbury is the synonym for chocolates in India and also the brand loyalty of Cadbury in India is quite high. Thus, based on these important criteria’s, India has been preferred for the launch of a new brand of Cadbury (Doddamani, 2011). Situation Analysis PESTLE Analysis Political Change in regulations and laws regarding international food labelling and trade are bound to affect Cadbury. Cadbury should be aware of the Food Safety Act and should take care in not violating it. Cadbury should also be cautious and ensure that none of its manufacturing plants are breaking laws related to production such as employing minors or paying less wage compared to the stated amount in the Wages Act (Mullerschon, n.d.). Economical The economy in India is a bit stable at this point, thus, launching a new chocolate bar would be supported (Mullerschon, n.d.). The stable economic condition has increased the per capita income which signifies that the disposable income of the populace of the country is higher at present. High rate in consumer spending and decrease in interest rates would help to encourage launching of a new brand (Mullerschon, n.d.). Increase in the population of middle income group would signify increasing demands. The cost of production in India would be low compared to other countries, thus, this would make market penetration easy for Cadbury. The market of chocolate in India is growing and there is immense scope to be exploited. The chocolate industry of India is a unique mix of attitudes, high consumption patterns, income levels, beliefs and spending. The country has high sales and many segments that are still uncovered (Doddamani, 2011). Social People nowadays have become quite health conscious and are trying to cut down on soft drinks, confectionaries and sweat meat because of high cholesterol and calorie. However, Cadbury has an edge over this as their products are becoming substitutes of sweet meat and confectionaries. Cadbury enjoys strong customer loyalty and their opinion is high regarding this company, thus, there is not any reason for the consumers to stop buying their products. The gift culture in India is growing, which will also enable to keep a sustained demand of Cadbury’s products (Mullerschon, n.d.). Technological Producti on is increasing because of machines with high technology and this enables the factories to produce in

Effect of Low Income School on Parent Involvement Article

Effect of Low Income School on Parent Involvement Article (Smith 2006, p. 43) in her article has tried to measure the impact of strategies undertaken to involve parent in child education at a low income school using qualitative research methods. Aims of Article The main aims of this article are to: Define how a low-income school defines intentional parental involvement strategies Define effects of those strategies The Methodology The above article is done as a qualitative research. Qualitative research is done to gain a deep understanding of a specific event, rather than a description of a large sample of a population. It is also called ethnomethodology or field research. It helps create information about human groups in social settings. Qualitative research aims to provide a better understanding of a phenomenon through experience, correct reporting, and quotations of actual conversations. It aims to provide an understanding about how participants tend to interpret their surroundings, and how their interpretations influence their behaviors. The main methodology for conducting this research was conducting a study at a low income school whose new structure was replacing an outdated structure in 2002. During the planning stage of the school community members, parents and agency professionals were involved in development of the new school structure to cater for the needs of low income families and of programs to involve parents in students education at the school. The efforts were then measured using qualitative data collection methods such as participant observation, interviews and document reviews. Participant observation is a period of intensive social interaction between the researcher and the subjects, in the latter's environment. It becomes the full-time occupation of the researcher. Participant observers are trained in techniques of observation, which distinguishes them from regular participants. Interviewing is one of the most commonly used methods for gathering data in qualitative research. Qualitative interviewing is usually different from quantitative interviewing in a number of ways. Interviewing tends to be much less structured in qualitative research. In quantitative research, interviews are usually kept much more structured in order to provide a valid measurement of key concepts that can answer some specific research questions. In qualitative interviewing, deviating is encouraged to give insight into what the interviewee sees as important. This is however discouraged in quantitative research. In qualitative interviewing, interviewers can significantly change the schedule and guide of the interview. In qualitative interviewing, The questions of interview get detailed answers; in quantitative research the interview generates answers that can be processed and statistically analyzed quickly. Researchers supplement qualitative research methods such as interviewing and observation with gathering and analyzing documents produced specifically for the research at hand . As such, the review of documents is an unobtrusive method, rich in portraying the values and beliefs of participants in the setting. Sampling was done using snowball sampling technique. A snowball sample is anon-probability sampling techniquethat is appropriate to use in research when the members of a population are difficult to locate. A snowball sample is a sample in which the researcher collects data from the few members of the target population they can find, then they ask those members from whom the data is collected to provide information on the location of other members of that population whom they know. Snowball sampling hardly leads to a representative sample, but sometimes it may be the best option available. For instance, if you are studying people smoking cannabis, you are not likely to find a list of all the people smoking cannabis in your city. However, if you identify one or two people smoking cannabis that are willing to participate in your study, it is likely that they know other cannabis smoking people in their area. However snowball sampling can be avoided if data about something is readily available. Source: http://www.northumbria.ac.uk/static/images/schoolimages/ar_images/cetl/gilldavisondiagram1.jpg The Setting The setting for this research was Clark Elementary School which was situated beside a city park in a small community surrounded by large industrial complexes. Most of the residents in neighborhood were low income. During the 2003-2004 school year, 5% of the students were American Indian, 3% of the students were Asian, 7% were Black, 19% were Hispanic, and 67% were White. According to the Clark Elementary School website, as of October 1, 2003, the languages spoken were 79% English, 11% Spanish, 6% Russian, 3% Ukrainian, 1% Vietnamese, and 2% other. In 1998 the district began to build a new school in order to replace the old one. A advisory group was formed consisting of members from community organizations, government agencies, the local church, the neighborhood association, the Clark Parent Teacher Organization (PTO), educators from Elementary School, and school district personnel to provide input for development of new school. The school was finally completed in 2002. Data Collection This research was qualitative in nature. Data was collected from the participants in three ways: Observation Interviews Document Reviews Observation:The author acted like a participant observer for before and after school programs, Read and play programs and awards assembly to which all families had been invited. Interviews: Semi-structured, open-ended interviews were conducted with educators, family workers, and parents from Clark Elementary School. 4 administrators were interviewed including the principal, the district consultant, The family Liaison coordinator and the Family Services coordinator. 6 teachers were interviewed, 6 parents were interviewed. For interviews snowball sampling was used. Source:http://www.featurepics.com/FI/Thumb300/20090704/Interview-1236952.jpg Document Reviews: Documents reviewed pertained mostly to the development process for the new school. All materials collected during the design process were examined and all references to the school in the local paper were reviewed. In addition, the school website and monthly newsletters were reviewed. source:http://blogs.adobe.com/acrolaw/files/2011/01/00_quick_review_illustration.png Findings A Foundation of Understanding: Since the school architecture and its programs were developed keeping the opinions of the communities, parents and members of community associations. After the school opened teachers and staff were made to understand the life circumstances of school families. This helped teachers understand parents more and reduced the probability of teachers blaming parents when their children faced academic difficulties and instead has increased the desire for teachers to assist the children. A Broad Definition: A definition of parental involvement emerged at the school which recognized a wide array of behaviors of involvement such as receipt of social services or picking up food or clothing at Family Resource centre. These behaviors also included the learning activities families engaged in while at home. Creating Intentional Parental Involvement Strategies: The intentional parental involvement strategies were designed in two distinct ways: Strategies to Provide Services: During initial meetings after considering the needs of neighborhood families it was decided to make the school in a community center style so as to provide services for low income families. The family resource center in the school helped connect parents with the various activities in school and also provide them with many facilities including computers, free food and clothing provided by government agencies. Strategies to Enhance Parental Involvement: The Clark Committee had designed parental involvement plans based on broad definition of parent involvement and on foundation of understanding. These strategies included inviting parents to school conferences, family nights and access resources offered by Family Resource Centers. All these services were found to have a positive impact of parent involvement and hence positively impacted Clark Elementary School. Benefits of Parental Involvement: Interviewers described better parent involvement leading to academic success. Teachers found that students were more motivated and had better self confidence as a result of parent involvement. Parents also were found to have other benefits of involvement other than academic ones and they could feel themselves part of a community. Recommendations Following things are recommended in this study: In order to develop strategies for parent involvement in low income schools it would be better to input the advice of neighbors and interested agency representatives in order to understand the lives of people the school shall serve. If we can get a clear understanding of the lives of their school families, we ought to encourage definition of parental involvement which would acknowledge a wide list of parental behaviors that lead to academic success. Educators serving low-income populations must consider offering services to the families of their students, thereby bringing parents into the school buildings. Full-service schools can provide services based on the understanding of the needs of the neighborhood, intended to meet the needs of low-income school families. Educators should invite the input and participation of community agencies, businesses, and faith-based groups in any efforts to meet the needs of school families. Offering the opportunity to provide input can encourage them to own the process and make them have a long term participation in the process Educators need to accept that parents may not choose to be involved in education in commonly accepted ways. Conclusion The main point of the article is that a better understanding of the community needs is a must for forming a better definition of parent involvement for the community. Hence, Educators working in low-income communities need a willingness to learn about their student populations and a high degree of commitment to school families in order to better formulate parent involvement strategies in schools. The author has used qualitative research methods to show a relationship between better understanding of the community by the school for introducing steps to increase parent involvement at the college. However, the main problem lies here in the sampling for interviews. Here snowball sampling is being used. This should have been avoided as snowball samples are hardly representatives of target populations and are just used for exploratory purposes. Since data for teachers and parents could have been made available by the school I this case, Using that data could have lead to a better sample cou ld have been prepared that would have been more representative of the population at hand. As it stands the study can be considered a good starting point of research for introducing steps for parent involvement in low income schools. Bibliography Smith, J. G. (2006). Parental Involvement in Education Among Low-Income Families: A Case Study. School Community Journal , 43.

We Have the Right to Use Cell Phones While Driving :: Argumentative Persuasive Argument Essays

We Have the Right to Use Cell Phones While Driving Imagine driving in a car and not being able to adjust your radio, roll down your window, or even talk to your passenger. This may sound a bit extreme, but little by little a person's rights are being infringed upon by those who think that using a cellular phone while driving should be illegal. Using a cell phone while driving is no different than a mother tending to her children in the backseat, a person eating in a car, or even someone engrossed in conversation with their passenger. Can these rights be taken away, can common sense be legislated? Cell phones first became available in the year 1984 and have only grown in popularity since (Stutts et al.). Today there are over one hundred and twenty-eight million users (Pickler). In recent years, cell phones have been in the spotlight for causing drivers to be distracted, resulting in a number of crashes. New York has become the first state to ban the use of hand-held phones when driving on public highways. This new law went into effect on December 1, 2002. Drivers may only use a hand held phone "in an emergency, to call for help or to report a dangerous situation." However, drivers are allowed to use hands free devices such as speaker phones ("New. . ."). Currently, there are thirty-eight other states with bills like this one in the process (Breslau and Naughton 46). Many are upset about these laws because data on the actual number of cell phone related car accidents is not complete. According to a spokeswoman for Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association, " There ar e not a lot of substantial findings" (Pickler). It's too early to tell if New York's new law is lowering the number of deaths caused by cell phones (Alonso-Zalvidar). Although around 2,600 people die each year from cell phone related accidents, a cell phone user only has around thirteen chances in a million of dying in a cell-phone related automobile accident. This is three times less than the chances of being killed by not wearing a seatbelt. Other motorists and pedestrians have a four in one million chance of being killed by a driver using a cell phone; the chance of getting killed by a drunk driver is four times as high (Pickler). Granted, every single human life is important, but these figures show that cell phones pose only a very small risk.